Spatiotemporal clustering of suicides in the US from 1999 to 2016: a spatial epidemiological approach Abstract Purpose This study aims to describe and characterize the spatial and temporal clustering patterns of suicide in the ten states with the greatest suicide burden in the United States from 1999 to 2016. Methods All suicide deaths from January 1, 1999 to December 31, 2016 in the United States were identified using data from the Wide-ranging Online Data for Epidemiologic Research (WONDER) dataset. The ten states with the highest age-adjusted suicide rates were Montana, Alaska, Wyoming, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Idaho, Colorado, Arizona, and Oklahoma. A spatiotemporal scan statistic using a discrete Poisson model was employed to retrospectively detect spatiotemporal suicide clusters. Results From 1999 to 2016, a total of 649,843 suicides were recorded in the United States. Nineteen statistically significant spatiotemporal suicide mortality clusters were identified in the states with the greatest suicide rates, and 13.53% of the suicide cases within these states clustered spatiotemporally. The risk ratio of the clusters ranged from 1.45 to 3.64 (p < 0.001). All states had at least one cluster, with three clusters spanning multiple states, and four clusters were found in Arizona. While there was no clear secular trend in the average size of suicide clusters, the number of clusters increased from 1999 to 2016. Conclusions Hot spots for suicidal behavior in the United States warrant public health intervention and continued surveillance. As suicide rates in the US continue to increase annually, public health efforts could be maximized by focusing on regions with substantial clustering.

Predictive factors for changes in quality of life among children and adolescents in youth welfare institutions Abstract Purpose Children and adolescents living in youth welfare institutions often have a below average quality of life (QoL), for reasons that include developmental difficulties, history of traumatic experiences, and mental disorders. Youth welfare measures are needed that would have a positive impact, but there is a lack of longitudinal research on which measures are most effective. This study investigated what factors are associated with an improvement in QoL during residential stay. Methods Residents of youth care facilities in Switzerland and their professional caregivers completed questionnaires that addressed QoL, psychopathology, and experience of traumatic events at two time points. In addition, information regarding mental disorders was obtained through structured clinical interviews. Analyses were conducted on the data obtained from 204 respondents aged 11–18 years. Comparisons with a school sample were conducted. Results Compared to a school sample, a majority of participants rated their QoL equal, whereas their caregivers rated it as lower. Factors predictive of a poorer QoL were high levels of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology, presence of co-morbidities, and female gender. At the second assessment, the caregivers reported a small improvement, which was associated with reductions in both internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Conclusions The finding that a reduction in severity of psychopathology may result in an improvement in QoL underlines the importance of providing professional support for mentally ill residents of youth welfare institutions. Further research is needed to determine the causality of this association.

Depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation, and mental health care-seeking in central Mozambique Abstract Purpose There is scant research on depressive symptoms (DS), suicidal ideation (SI), and mental health care-seeking in Mozambique. Methods Generalized estimating equations were used to assess factors associated with DS, SI, and mental health care-seeking among 3080 individuals interviewed in a representative household survey in Sofala and Manica provinces, Mozambique. Results 19% (CI 17–21%) of respondents reported DS in the past year and 17% (CI 15–18%) lifetime SI. Overall, only 10% (CI 8–11%) of respondents ever sought any care for mental illness, though 26% (CI 23–29%) of those reporting DS and/or SI sought care. 90% of those who sought care for DS received treatment; however, only 46% of those who sought care for SI received treatment. Factors associated with DS and SI include: female gender, divorced/separated, widowed, and > 55 years old. Respondents in the bottom wealth quintile reported lower DS, while those in upper wealth quintiles reported higher prevalence of SI. Individuals with DS or SI had significantly elevated measures of disability—especially in doing household chores, work/school activities, standing for long periods, and walking long distances. Factors associated with care-seeking include: female gender, rural residence, divorced/separated, and > 45 years old. Individuals in lower wealth quintiles and with no religious affiliation had lower odds of seeking care. Conclusions DS and SI are prevalent in central Mozambique and treatment gaps are high (68% and 89%, respectively). An urgent need exists for demand- and supply-side interventions to optimize the delivery of comprehensive community-based mental healthcare in Mozambique.

Factors associated with discontinuation of antidepressant treatment after a single prescription among patients aged 55 or over: evidence from English primary care Abstract Purpose Antidepressants are frequently prescribed to older people with depression but little is known on predictors of discontinuation in this population. We, therefore, investigated factors associated with early discontinuation of antidepressants in older adults with new diagnoses or symptoms of depression in English primary care. Methods Data from a nationally representative cohort of patients aged 55 and over were used to evaluate the association between discontinuation of antidepressant medication after a single prescription and potential explanatory variables, including socio-demographic factors, polypharmacy and age-related problems such as dementia. Results Overall, during the study period we observed 34,715 new courses of antidepressant treatment initiated after recorded symptoms or diagnoses of depression. Antidepressant discontinuation after a single prescription was more common in people with depressive symptoms (32%) than in those with diagnosed depression (21.6%). In those diagnosed with depression and in women with depressive symptoms we found that, after adjusting for confounders, the odds of early discontinuation significantly increased after age 65 with a peak at around age 80 and then either levelled or reduced thereafter. Early discontinuation was also significantly less common in people with dementia and in those with diagnosed depression living in more rural areas. Conclusions Early discontinuation of antidepressants increases in the post-retirement years and is higher in those with no formal diagnosis of depression, those without dementia and those with diagnosed depression living in urban areas. Alternative treatment strategies, such as non-drug therapies, or more active patient follow-up should be further considered in these circumstances.

Physical activity of people with mental disorders compared to the general population: a systematic review of longitudinal cohort studies Abstract Purpose We investigated if (a) people with lower physical activity have an increased risk of subsequent mental disorders (compared to those with higher physical activity); and (b) people with mental disorders have reduced subsequent physical activity (compared to those without mental disorders). Methods A systematic review of population-based longitudinal studies examining physical activity and mental disorders was conducted. Mental disorders were defined by International Classification of Diseases or Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. The results were described in a narrative summary. Results Twenty-two studies were included. The majority (19) examined mood disorders and physical activity. Only two studies found consistent association between lower physical activity and a reduced risk of subsequent mental disorders. One study found the bidirectional association between physical activity and major depression. Twelve studies found mixed results (i.e., no consistency in direction and significance of the findings), and seven studies found no association between the variables of interest. Conclusions There is a lack of consistent evidence linking physical activity to be either a risk factor or consequence of mental disorders. PROSPERO registration ID CRD42017071737.

Concurrent use of benzodiazepines, antidepressants, and opioid analgesics with zolpidem and risk for suicide: a case–control and case–crossover study Abstract Purpose To evaluate whether the concurrent use of benzodiazepines, antidepressants, and opioid analgesics with zolpidem increases the risk of suicide or triggers suicide compared with the use of zolpidem alone. Methods We conducted a case–control and case–crossover study using the Korean National Health Insurance Service-National Sample Cohort database. Cases were older than 20 years with a suicide record (International Codes of Disease 10th Revision codes: X-60-X84 and Y87.0 intentional self-harm) between January 1, 2004, and December 31, 2013. For case–control design, ten controls were matched to each case by age, sex, index year, region, income, and health insurance type. For case–crossover analysis, we set hazard period to 60 days and assigned five corresponding sets of control periods of equal length. Exposure was assessed during 60 days before suicide for combinations of benzodiazepines, antidepressants, opioid analgesics with zolpidem against zolpidem alone. We conducted a conditional logistic regression to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Results In the case–control study, the risk of suicide was 2.80-fold higher in cases taking benzodiazepines and antidepressants with zolpidem than in those taking zolpidem alone (adjusted OR [aOR], 2.80; 95% CI, 1.38–5.70). However, in the case–crossover study, suicide risk showed no significant difference (crude OR [cOR], 0.92; 95% CI, 0.55–1.52) and was underpowered. Conclusions The results of the traditional case–control study confirmed that the concurrent use of benzodiazepines and antidepressants with zolpidem was associated with an increased risk of suicide compared with the use of zolpidem alone. However, there was no significant difference in the magnitude of risk in the within-person comparison design.

Barriers and predictors of medication use for childhood ADHD: findings from a UK population-representative cohort Abstract Purpose Little is known about sociodemographic and clinical factors that predict and act as barriers to ADHD medication independently of symptom severity. We examined the proportion of children using medication for ADHD, age of initiation of medication, and predictors of medication use in a population-representative cohort. Methods Data from the Millennium Cohort Study on child ADHD, medication use for ADHD at age 14 (in 2014–2015) and child, parent and sociodemographic variables were collated. Logistic regression models were used to identify factors that predict medication use for ADHD (the main outcome measure), adjusting for symptom severity at age seven. Results The weighted prevalence of ADHD was 3.97% (N = 11,708). 45.57% of children with ADHD (N = 305) were taking medication. The median age at initiation was 9 years (range 3–14). Male gender (AOR 3.66, 95% CI 1.75, 7.66) and conduct problems at age seven (AOR 1.24 95% CI 1.04, 1.47) and 14 predicted medication use at age 14 after adjusting for symptom severity. Conclusions Our study is the first to assess predictors of medication whist adjusting for ADHD symptom severity. Girls with ADHD were less likely to be prescribed medication, even when they displayed similar ADHD symptom levels to boys. Conduct problems also predicted medication independently of ADHD symptoms. ADHD may be more often medicated in boys because clinicians may think a prototypical ADHD child is male, and perhaps conduct problems make boys more disruptive in the classroom, leading to boys being more often treated.

The role of neuroticism in self-harm and suicidal ideation: results from two UK population-based cohorts Abstract Background Self-harm is common, debilitating and associated with completed suicide and increased all-cause mortality, but there is uncertainty about its causal risk factors, limiting risk assessment and effective management. Neuroticism is a stable personality trait associated with self-harm and suicidal ideation, and correlated with coping styles, but its value as an independent predictor of these outcomes is disputed. Methods Prior history of hospital-treated self-harm was obtained by record-linkage to administrative health data in Generation Scotland:Scottish Family Health Study (N = 15,798; self-harm cases = 339) and by a self-report variable in UK Biobank (N = 35,227; self-harm cases = 772). Neuroticism in both cohorts was measured using the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Short Form. Associations of neuroticism with self-harm were tested using multivariable regression following adjustment for age, sex, cognitive ability, educational attainment, socioeconomic deprivation, and relationship status. A subset of GS:SFHS was followed-up with suicidal ideation elicited by self-report (n = 3342, suicidal ideation cases = 158) and coping styles measured by the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations. The relationship of neuroticism to suicidal ideation, and the role of coping style, was then investigated using multivariable logistic regression. Results Neuroticism was positively associated with hospital-associated self-harm in GS:SFHS (per EPQ-SF unit odds ratio 1.2 95% credible interval 1.1–1.2, pFDR 0.0003) and UKB (per EPQ-SF unit odds ratio 1.1 95% confidence interval 1.1–1.2, pFDR 9.8 × 10−17). Neuroticism, and the neuroticism-correlated coping style, emotion-oriented coping (EoC), were also associated with suicidal ideation in multivariable models. Conclusions Neuroticism is an independent predictor of hospital-treated self-harm risk. Neuroticism and emotion-orientated coping styles are also predictive of suicidal ideation.

Suicide mortality follow-up of the Swiss National Cohort (1990–2014): sex-specific risk estimates by occupational socio-economic group in working-age population Abstract Purpose To identify occupations and socio-economic groups with detrimental or protective effect on suicide mortality. Methods For every occupation and economic activity/industry, we computed directly age-standardized mortality rates (DSRs) using the age structure of the European population (2010) and standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) for suicide using national cause-specific mortality rates. We further stratified analyses by socio-economic variables, job-skill level, and by three calendar periods (1990–1998/1999–2006/2007–2014). Results The study sample comprised 5,834,618 participants (94,918,456 person-years). The highest DSRs were observed among unemployed/job-seeking group, in agricultural, fishery and related male workers, and in health and social activities female workers. The lowest DSRs were observed in real estate and renting, research and development, IT and other business activities in men and in agriculture, hunting and forestry industry in women. A consistent reduction in DSRs across three calendar periods was observed in men. In female corporate managers, DSRs increased over the 2007–2014 period compared with 1999–2006. Compared to general working-age population, unemployed/job-seeking people, manufacturing labourers, personal care and related workers, and motor vehicle drivers of both sexes were identified at risk of suicide. Moreover, an excess of suicide was observed among male material recording and transport clerks; nursing and midwife-associated professionals; and agricultural workers as well as among female writers and performing artists. Conclusions The findings suggest the detrimental effect of low socioeconomic positions, including unemployment, with respect to suicide mortality and a relationship between suicide and poor psychosocial working conditions in elementary occupations. Sex-specific results need further investigation.

Identifying typologies among persons admitted to hospital for non-fatal intentional self-harm in Victoria, Australia Abstract Purpose The aim of this study was to determine whether people who have been hospitalised as the result of non-fatal self-harm form meaningful groups based on mechanism of injury, and demographic and mental health-related factors. Methods A retrospective analysis of 18,103 hospital admissions for self-harm in Victoria, Australia over the 3-year period 2014/2015–2016/2017 recorded on the Victorian Admitted Episodes Dataset (VAED). The VAED records all hospital admissions in public and private hospitals in Victoria. The primary analysis used a two-step method of cluster analysis. Initial analysis determined two distinct groups, one composed of individuals who had a recorded mental illness diagnosis and one composed of individuals with no recorded mental illness diagnosis. Subsequent cluster analysis identified four subgroups within each of the initial two groups. Results Within the diagnosed mental illness subgroups, each subgroup was characterised by a particular mental disorder or a combination of disorders. Within the no diagnosis of mental illness groups, the youngest group was also the most homogenous (all females who self-poisoned), the oldest group had a high proportion of rural/regional residents, the group with the highest proportion of males also had the highest proportion of people who used cutting as the method of self-harm, and the group with the highest proportion of metropolitan residents also had the highest proportion of people who were married. Conclusions Preventative interventions need to take into account that those who are admitted to hospital for self-harm are a heterogeneous group.